Tyrannosaurus rex ranks among the most comprehensively studied extinct vertebrates1 and a model system for dinosaur paleobiology1. As one of the last surviving non-avian dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus is a crucial datum for assessing terrestrial biodiversity, ecosystem structure, and biogeographic exchange immediately preceding the end-Cretaceous mass extinction -one of Earth's greatest biological catastrophes. Paleobiological studies of Tyrannosaurus, including ontogenetic niche partitioning2-4, feeding, locomotor biomechanics,5,6and life history7-9 have drawn upon an expanding skeletal sample comprising multiple hypothesized growth stages-and yet the Tyrannosaurus hypodigm remains controversial10-13. A key outstanding question relates to specimens considered to exemplify immature Tyrannosaurus1,14-19, which have been argued to represent the distinct taxon Nanotyrannus11,13,20,21. Here, we describe an exceptionally well-preserved, near somatically mature tyrannosaur skeleton (NCSM 40000) from the Hell Creek Formation that shares autapomorphies with the holotype specimen of N. lancensis. We couple comparative anatomy, longitudinal growth models, observations on ontogenetic character invariance, and a novel phylogenetic dataset to test the validity of Nanotyrannus, demonstrating conclusively that this taxon is distinguishable from Tyrannosaurus, sits outside Tyrannosauridae, and unexpectedly contains two species-N. lancensis and N. lethaeus, sp. nov. Our results prompt a re-evaluation of dozens of existing hypotheses based on currently indefensible ontogenetic trajectories. Finally, we document at least two co-occurring, ecomorphologically distinct genera in the Maastrichtian of North America, demonstrating that tyrannosauroid alpha diversity was thriving within one million years of the end-Cretaceous extinction.

The most abundant type of planet discovered in the Galaxy has no analogue in our Solar System and is believed to consist of a rocky interior with an overlying thick H2 dominated envelope. Models have predicted that the reaction between the atmospheric hydrogen and the underlying magma ocean can lead to the production of significant amounts of water. The models suffer however from the current lack of experimental data on the reaction between hydrogen and silicate melt at high pressures and temperatures. Here we present novel experimental results designed to investigate this interaction. Laser heating diamond anvil cell experiments were conducted between 16 and 60 GPa at temperatures above 4000 K. We find that copious amounts of hydrogen dissolve into the silicate melt with a large dependence on temperature rather than pressure. We also find that the reduction of iron oxide leads to the production of significant amounts of water along with the formation of iron-enriched blebs. Altogether, the results predict that the typical processes attending planet formation will result in significant water production with repercussions for the chemistry and structure of the planetary interior as well as the atmosphere.